This
paper is by Prof. Ravinder Banyal (ravi.banyal@gmail.com)
It was
presented at the International Conference on Science Communication for
Scientific Temper, 10-12 January, 2012 New Delhi.
It has
also been published online at http://nirmukta.com/2012/02/28/myths-superstitions-and-propaganda-in-the-scientific-age/
Abstract
From
prehistoric times, humans have evolved as a pattern-seeking and storytelling
species. While the capacity to find patterns and infer meanings had obvious
advantages for survival, the brain is not always successful in distinguishing
meaningful and meaningless patterns. In fact, “pattern finding” and “order
seeking” mechanisms form the basis for nearly all existing myths,
superstitions, cultural taboos and ritual practices all over the world. The
same mechanism also makes us extremely vulnerable to all kinds of deceptions
and manipulative techniques that impair our critical faculties. We may imagine
things that don’t exist, make false judgments, accept uncritical claims,
misinterpret facts and arrive at conclusions that are completely at odds with
reality. The scientific age is riddled with intriguing contradictions and
human-made follies. The technology-driven consumer culture and entertainment
industry has fuelled the growth of primitive superstitions, myths and new age
beliefs. The need to promote a rational discussion on science, technology and
equitable social development has never been so pressing. The first thing to
guard against such trends is to be aware of the subtle persuasive techniques,
marketing strategies and advertisement gimmicks that make us increasingly
helpless consumers in the scientific age. Conveying the excitement of science
and scientific discovery is no doubt an essential part of science education and
public outreach activities. But equally important is to learn to draw the
distinction between unsubstantiated claims and factual findings based on sound
reasoning and evidence. Discerning magical thinking and vague ideas from the
realm of possibilities that lie within limits of physical laws is therefore
important to inculcate scientific temper. In this article, some major ways that
can lead to sloppy thinking, misplaced apprehensions and faulty reasoning in
our daily lives are discussed. The paper includes examples to illustrate how
erroneous beliefs are formed and why healthy skepticism and critical inquiry is
necessary to avoid common pitfalls.
Introduction
Our
grand universe was born with a ‘big-bang’ about 13.7 billion years ago. In this
marvellous expanse, Earth, the only known planet to harbour life, was formed
some 4.5 billion years back in the solar system. Over the last 3.7 billion
years or so, life on earth has evolved from a unicellular organism to highly
complex and assorted forms. In the intervening period, several million species
flourished and have gone extinct. To our knowledge, in this tree of life no
other species was endowed with an inquisitive brain that was sufficiently
advanced to ponder over things and indulge in abstract reasoning. Hitherto, the
inhabitants of Earth were impervious (not by choice though) to the secrets and
wonders of the Universe around. Compared to the enormous time scale, the
arrival of humans on Earth is very recent. It is only about 5-8 million years
back that we had split from our closest relatives, the chimpanzees, and evolved
as a separate species. It wasn’t until the emergence of Homo sapiens
about 200,000 years ago that the vast Universe wrapped in grand mysteries was
ready to be explored. The evolving human brain had just begun to marvel at the
impressive regularity and remarkable spectrum of events occurring in the
physical world.
Watching
a clear night sky, dotted with seemingly innumerable stars, journeying almost
like a divinely ordained fashion, must have been the most amazing and
inexplicable experience for early human beings. Right from prehistoric times,
people were driven by genuine curiosity and reverence arising from the
observations of periodic motion of the heavenly objects. For thousands of years,
humans have understood the cycle of changes occurring in the night sky,
discovered familiar patterns of stars and also struggled to make sense of rare
events like lunar and solar eclipses or an unexpected arrival of a comet. As a
species, humans are predisposed to look for visual and auditory patterns and
assign meanings to them. From the survival viewpoint, this instinctive ability
had clear evolutionary advantages as it helped primeval beings guard against
real or imagined threats that often lurked in hostile and dangerous
environment.
The
relentless struggle to understand the heaven and earth also laid the basis for
supernatural beliefs, cultural taboos and numerous superstitions and ritual
practices to please and appease the powerful and ill-tempered gods who
allegedly controlled the destiny of earthly beings. It is not at all surprising
that most civilizations around the world have developed their own fascinating
stories resembling myths about the Universe. These primitive belief systems
were eventually transformed into organized and powerful religions forcing
people to dogmatic conformity and servitude.
Lessons from Optical Illusions
Figure
1: Lessons from optical illusions
As
pointed out, we prefer an orderly, meaningful and simplistic world as opposed
to the random, purposeless and chaotic arrangement of things. Keen observation
with predisposition to detect pattern and make connections has also led to
several scientific discoveries. However, there is a downside to this “pattern
finding” and “order seeking” mechanism. By looking at certain patterns, we can
get thoroughly deceived and may conjure up things that really don’t exist. How
easily the mind and brain can be misled is understood from the simple optical
illusions illustrated in Fig. 1. Reexamination or some kind of mental exercise
will not make these illusions disappear. The cognitive deception, however, is
not confined to optical illusions alone. In general, it forms the basis for
holding erroneous beliefs, making false assumptions, arriving at wrong
conclusions, and most importantly, pushing aside good judgment and rational
thoughts while interpreting facts.
Now
take a closer look at Fig. 2. It gives us an idea of the complexity of the
world we live in. Good or bad, what these images show is a direct outcome of
our convictions, our conflicts, our aspirations and our beliefs. Scientific
approach and rational thinking have largely triumphed in understanding several
aspects of our physical universe. The meteoric rise of science in the last 400
years has in fact altered the very landscape of human existence. Basic research
and gradual advancement in technology have thus far exceeded expectations of
ordinary minds. Science has not disappointed those who knew how to harness its
latent power. Despite many noteworthy achievements, modern societies are also
deeply mired in all sorts of contradictions, absurdities, propaganda and
irrational practices. We have created many divisive walls and dangerous
ideologies based on religion, ethnicity and racial differences. The unfolding
climate change, global warming and dwindling natural resources are all emerging
crises for humanity. On top of that, irrational impulses of dominance and greed
make the future look pretty bleak.
Technological onslaught
Figure
2: Triumphs and tribulations of the technological age
The
information age is not free from its perils. This may sound like an oxymoron.
But there is a growing body of evidence that clearly raise serious concerns of
increasing influence of technology in our daily lives. We are constantly
bombarded by an enormous amount of information flowing from the Internet,
television and other forms of mass media. Our brains are not tuned to process a
message – dense and often conflicting stream of information. Whatever we see,
read or hear could be skewed in one way or another.
Sometimes
it is hard to discern relevant from frivolous, good from bad and desirable from
deceitful. For lack of better skills, we fail to make an independent and
critical evaluation of what we see, what we read and what we hear. The problem
worsens when the information is deliberately distorted to mislead the recipient
in some predetermined way. The dividing line between useful and useless,
genuine and fraudulent, just and wrongful, factual and fictitious, true and
false, thus becomes blurred. This is where someone else can take control over
our critical faculties. The lack of critical and independent thinking, for
example, makes people extremely vulnerable. It compels them to seek guidance and
personal cure from sources that are hardly benign and authentic.
At
another level, irrational faith can become a breeding ground for collective
indoctrination, forcing absolute compliance to supremacist authority of one
kind or another. Uncritical acceptance of claims results in convoluted thinking
and wrong reasoning. Despotic leaders, popular cult figures, religious heads
and soothsayers, for example, often take advantage of basic human psychology
and the veil of ignorance. They appeal to people’s deepest fears and irrational
hopes before taking control of their lives.
In
recent years, the celebration of religious festivals, superstitions and rituals
have become regular practices in many research and educational institutes in
India. The case of the Indian Space and Research Organization (ISRO) is
particularly appalling. The achievements of India’s space programme are
commendable, but when it comes to the responsibility of developing scientific
outlook and rational thinking to fight the social ills, the organization
perhaps did not quite live up to the desired standard. Instead of spearheading
a campaign (by virtue of its privileged position and wider resources) to
eradicate superstitions and illiteracy, ISRO officials often hit the headlines
for wrong reasons. You may wonder why the name PSVL-C13 was missing from the
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) series. This omission was purely based on
widely held belief in numerology about the number 13 which is considered
unlucky. Following the advice of some numerologist, ISRO had chosen to skip the
problematic number and name the next space mission as PSLV-C14 after PSLV-12.
Last year, the success of India’s first mission to moon, Chandrayaan-1, was an
astounding feat. As usual, before the launch, ISRO officials visited the
Tirupati temple to offer special prayers for the success of the mission.
Trajectories of modern space flights are not controlled by prayers, but
meticulously computed from the orbital mechanics derived from Newton’s law of
motion and gravitation. Deity puja and godly faith cannot fix a technical
fault. In fact, attributing success to higher powers and seeking divine
interventions grossly undermine the capabilities and achievements of human
ingenuity. The proven success of the moon mission was solely due to the
diligent efforts of individuals and nearly flawless engineering design.
The
alarming manifestation of religious zeal in public sphere is a mighty blow to
the Nehruvian legacy of scientific temper in India. Someone must explain why
such ceremonial gesturing is necessary or even desirable when we fully
understand how reactionary and communal forces exploit these myths to unleash
social violence. Public display of personal beliefs and religious fervour is
not just irrational and regressive, it also violates the foundational
principles of our Constitution. A distinction that we should not fail to make
as science communicators.
Consumer Market and Entertainment Industry
The
consumer market and entertainment industry too have forged an unholy alliance
with technology to exploit the gullible public. The mass media and digital
technology has emerged as a most powerful instrument of propaganda and
persuasion. In his book, Propaganda and Psychological Warfare, T.H.
Qualter defines propaganda as “the deliberate attempt by some individual or
group to form, control, or alter the attitudes of other groups by the use of
instruments of communication, with the intention that in any given situation
the reaction of those influenced will be that desired by the propagandist“.
Emotive
words and false analogies are drawn to promote free market ideology by
depicting the consumer as a king and the market as an empire. Subtle ideas and
values are ingrained through clever visual imagery, tantalizing graphics and sound
effects. Products are embedded in popular entertainment, movies and other media
forms. Children are highly susceptible to propaganda and become soft targets
for mind control. Findings indicate that more 90% of pre-children group want to
buy things that are advertised in television commercials. They are made brand
conscious right from a tender age and grow up as trained and loyal customers. ‘Catch
them young‘ is an unconcealed motto for many brand managers. It is not
terribly surprising that companies hire the best psychologists and designers to
invent ways that entice kids to buy their products and foster a life time
allegiance for the brand.
Advergaming
is another new concept where brands are introduced to the audience through
online games. In United States alone, advergaming is expected to grow to a $68
billion industry by 2012 (Business Standard, 7 January, 2010). Closer
home, we can take the example of the recently made science-fiction movie
Ra.One. The marketing budget of the movie was well over 52 crore of which 15
crore alone was spent for online publicity (The Tribune, 5 Nov, 2011).
Special video games and electronic gadgets were launched to lure the techno-savvy
audience before the movie was released worldwide. The official online store of
Ra-One sold over 40,000 merchandise items (e.g. coffee mugs, mobile pouches,
video cameras, tee shirts, caps, school stationary and toys) in just about 15
days. The order for additional 100, 000 items was awaited. That is how
technology is used to create a maniacal obsession for celebrity culture and
almost insatiable desire for consumption and non-stop entertainment.
The
increasing numbers of 24×7 TV channels are willing to cater to anything that
will amuse people to death. The lucrative entertainment business thrives on
sensational soaps, family dramas, tele-shopping, paid news, advertising,
doomsday theories, reality shows, mythological serials, fear mongering, superstitious
themes, faith preaching and dedicated time slots for highly paid astrology,
feng-shui, vastu and yoga experts. In particular, the live telecast of
religious festivals (e.g. Kumbha Mela, Ganesh Chaturthi and Navratri etc), and
big sporting events has been shown to boost the TRPs.
Serious
issues, no doubt, fail to touch the conscience of the nation. Otherwise, a
country that is constantly struggling to meet its fuel and energy demand would
not have chosen to disgrace itself by burning a whopping 2-lakhs litre of
petrol to host a rather infamous Formula-1 racing event (Indian
Express, October 24, 2011). The dazzling show was endorsed by most famous
sports personalities, business tycoons and cinema stars. Our national media,
especially the English TV channels, who otherwise never shy away from
pontificating to bureaucrats and politicians, colluded in this show-biz
propaganda in an almost hysterical manner. Most ‘prime time shows‘ were
virtually transformed to high-pitch ‘sale time shows‘ with a singular agenda
to impress upon viewers that pride, prestige and prosperity of India was solely
hinging on this one mega event!
There
are many other examples how technology is used to (mis)educate and enslave
people. These techno-hyper challenges pose a greater threat to the advancement
of scientific temper and critical thinking among people. Someone seriously
engaged in spreading science education, rational inquiry and developing
scientific temper should also be prepared to deal with such pressing issues. We
cannot stop propaganda, but we can certainly take some discrete steps to stay
immune to it. The goal is not to spot other people’s weakness and follies and
laugh at it. The efforts should be directed, as Baruch Spinoza has famously
said, ” … not to ridicule, not to bewail, not to scorn human actions, but to
understand them.” First thing we can do is to learn how to identify various
forms and means of propaganda and understand how human thinking can go wrong.
Many ways in which errors and biases in human judgment can occur are explained
with some well known examples.
Misinterpretation of existing theories
Theories
can influence observations. This happens when new findings are wrongly
interpreted to seek conformity with known theories. For instance, Christopher
Columbus had set out on a westward journey with the hope to reach Asia that was
well known for silk, spices and opium. He landed in the Caribbean islands and
found people using red chillies which he mistook for pepper and wrongly thought
that he had arrived in India. Another well known example of misrepresentation
of scientific theory is social Darwinism. It is based on the misplaced notion
that the biological principle of evolution and natural selection also regulate
the social order and hierarchy among humans. Those who are rich and powerful
are innately considered better than those who are weak and poor, thus
legitimizing the existing structures of power and dominance in society.
Usage of scientific jargon
Products
are sold with scientific sounding words and labels to fool people who are not
quite familiar with their precise meaning. That explains why books written on
quantum healing, thought waves, subtle energy fields, scientific astrology,
trans-dimensional energy etc are so popular among the highly educated class of
people!
Anecdotal and after-the-fact reasoning
Untested
and ambiguous claims of miracles and magical cure are forcefully advanced based
on personal experiences and experiences of others. Abnormal behaviour of
animals and birds is reported in the aftermath of major natural disasters such
as earthquakes and tsunamis! Rumours of miracles spread like wild-fire. Claims
such as Ganesha drinking milk, blood flowing from Jesus statue and Sai Baba’s
moon miracle are assumed true by followers without casting any doubt! The
Internet is full of studies claiming a positive effect of prayers on healing.
But upon close scrutiny, it reveals more about the expectations and biases of
the people conducting these studies than the efficacy of the prayer itself.
The burden of proof
Figure
3: Independent evidence for the spherical shape of the Earth
“Extraordinary
claims require extraordinary evidence“. The burden of proof lies with those
who make the claim at the first place. For example, there is hardly a shred of
scientific evidence to support intelligent design. On the contrary, many line
of evidences (genetics, DNA sequencing, evidence from fossil records etc) exist
which independently prove that life has evolved on Earth. Similarly, the
spherical shape of the earth can be independently established from different
observations as illustrated in Fig. 3. A belief should come from the positive
evidence supporting the claim and not from the lack of evidence for or against
it. For example, one cannot disprove the existence of aliens, fairies or
ghosts. It does not mean that they exist; neither does it imply that they don’t
exist. Carl Sagan had conveyed it succinctly, “the absence of evidence is
not the evidence of absence.”
Confusing coincidence with causation
Just
because two events follow one another, it is assumed that one is responsible
for the other. Coincidence and correlations do not imply causation. We have a
strong tendency to remember false positives and ignore misses. Changing the bat
at a particular stage of the game, wearing the left pad first or keeping a red
handkerchief in the pocket while fielding, are some of the common forms of
superstitions among cricketers!
Limitations of the experiment
Experiments
are performed to deny or prove the validity of a particular claim and also
deepen our knowledge of the phenomenon. However, the outcome of an experiment
is limited by the range and sensitivity of the instrument. For example, the
size of the fishnet cannot be used to infer the size of the largest or smallest
fish in the ocean. Likewise, the knowledge of the observable universe is
constrained by the size of the largest telescope available.
Unexplained is not inexplicable
It is
said that our knowledge is limited but our ignorance is infinite. Given the
limitations of human intellect, it is likely that many things will remain
beyond the realm of our knowledge. Scientific frontiers are always stacked
against terrains that are unknown and unexplored. What is the nature of dark
matter and dark energy? Can we ever cure cancer and AIDS? How does human brain
function? Why does the placebo effect work? We do not yet know answers to these
questions. But unexplained does not imply inexplicable. Instead of drawing
premature conclusions and attributing mysteries to the supernatural power, it
is better to be agnostic and hopeful before they are understood.
Experimenter effects
Figure
4: Observation and experiment influencing the observed
Observations
and experiments can change the observed phenomenon. For example, to detect an
electron it must interact with light photons. But the very interaction of
photon with electron changes its state, i.e., speed and direction. The
expectations and biases of anthropologists studying a tribe can alter the
behaviour of its members. This may explain why only certain groups or
individuals are able to perform a particular experiment. Psychologists use
blind and double blind tests to minimize the effect of observations.
Interestingly, a scientific study carried out to examine the impact of prayers
on cardiac patients found no significant effect on health recovery. However, a slightly
higher rate of complications was reported for patients who knew that they were
receiving the prayers. In this case, as the researchers later explained,
“patients’ knowledge that they were the subject of intercessory prayer might
have induced a form of performance anxiety or made them feel doubtful about
their outcome.”
Wishful thinking
The
skeptic dictionary defines wishful thinking as, “interpreting facts, reports,
events, perceptions, etc., according to what one would like to be the case
rather than according to the actual evidence.” One of the classic examples of
wishful thinking is those who believe that ancient scriptures (e.g. Vedas,
Quran or Bible) contain solutions to every problem in the world – be it global
warming, terrorism, or chronic illness. Some people have well meaning, but
intense wishful desire to see India becoming a superpower by 2020! The
assumption that science and technology alone will solve all our problems is
another example of wishful thinking. Genetically modified (GM) crops are
expected to yield an “ever green revolution!” The energy crisis has to be met
by import of nuclear reactors. It is safe and really green!
Glittering generalities
This
is a technique of associating a product or an idea with some universally held
virtue and emotions. Words like patriotism, democracy, honesty, liberty,
justice, morality, freedom, spirituality, national pride, truth, scientific,
logical, love, human values, etc, have positive connotations that are not
only effective in concealing the ulterior motive of the perpetrator but also
grant a certain degree of legitimacy and appeal to the idea. A significant
surge in cigarette sale was recorded when the tobacco companies in the West
explicitly tried to portray smoking as a symbol of women’s liberation. A
literate person is more likely to believe in scientific astrology and scientific
Vastu as opposed to using astrology and Vastu alone. A perceived threat
to national security is generally used to quash citizen’s rights
and genuine aspirations. A higher sale is expected when a consumer product is
advertising with slogans like "be Indian buy India"!
The support and justification for Iraq war was built on empty rhetoric of
bringing ‘democracy and freedom’ to the Iraqi people!
Name calling and ad hominem attack
Figure 5: Myths, ideological propaganda and social violence
Name
calling and ad hominem attack is used as a tactic to arouse hatred and
xenophobic feelings with intent to demonize and discredit the opponent. These
fallacies deflect the focus from the main argument to personal attacks and
baseless allegations. If you criticize someone’s closely held beliefs, then you
will be called arrogant or atheists! People advocating Indo-Pak peace are labelled
as traitors! In a vicious propaganda the Nazi blamed Jews for every malady that
the Germans were allegedly suffering from. Senator Joseph McCarthy led a
witch-hunt in the 1950s in which he accused thousands of Americans, including
Einstein and Charlie Chaplin, as Communists spies! In the 2008 U.S.
presidential election, the right wing tabloid ran an insidious campaign against
Barack Obama linking him to some secret Muslim brotherhood! Dr. Binayak Sen, a
well known human rights activist, was wrongly implicated of charges of sedition
and waging a war against the state on flimsy grounds. A strategic alliance is
sought by peddling myths such as: “India is surrounded by powerful enemies from
all sides. Hence, we must become a superpower by aligning economically and
militarily with other superpowers!” All kinds of conspiracy theories are
propagated to target and question the patriotism and loyalty of certain
religious groups!
Overreliance on authority
People
have a tendency to place too much confidence in authorities. What we don’t
realize is that authorities too can be fallible. Trusting authorities when the
matter lies outside their field of expertise is even more problematic. For
example, there is a widely held belief that during the full moon there is high
rate of crime, violence, suicides, and mental illness. Apparently, the
popularity of the myth can be attributed to many mental health care experts and
medical professionals who strongly believe in the phenomenon. Studies conducted
so far, however, have failed to establish a credible link between the full moon
and human behaviour (e.g. see ref. 7).
Uncertainly and fear of the unknown
The
human desire for certainty and simple explanation of events interferes with our
ability for sound reasoning and critical analysis. The anxiety of unforeseeable
events such as unfortunate accidents, death of near and dear ones, fear of
financial loss in business, relationship breakup and visitation of a dreadful
disease etc drives people to seek help from fortune tellers, astrologers, faith
healers, psychics and new age gurus. Fake investors and insurance industry is
known to exploit deep-seated fears and uncertainties to expand their business.
Mystics, swamis and mullahs make use of irrational fears to spank more
religiosity and obedience towards the leader.
The
preceding description of myths, superstitions and ideological propaganda is
neither rigorous nor complete. For a comprehensive and detailed study, the
interested reader should consult a vast amount of published literature and
excellent books written on the subject.
Conclusions
The
underlying cause of erroneous beliefs and propaganda machinery which reinforce
and exploit human fallibility for communal, political and financial purposes
cannot be completely eradicated. It has to be compensated by cultivating
certain habits of the mind that promote critical thinking and sound reasoning.
An acquaintance and understanding of various kinds of myths, superstitions and
propaganda tactics can reduce the likelihood of deception and entrapment. The
habit of raising doubts and asking questions can prevent the formation of
dubious beliefs. The authenticity of claims should be checked from credible and
independent resources. One cannot expect to get a fair coverage of an event or
a breaking story, if for example, the reporters are given patronage by
interested lobbying groups (WEF: Red Spider, Black Spider Redux, The Hindu,
November 24, 2011).
Another
important thing to realize is that worldly events are not completely
deterministic. Everyday life experience presents us only with limited and
biased samples of information. In the real world, we have to deal with
incomplete and unrepresentative datum. Developing an awareness and appreciation
of the provisional nature of things can reduce the discomfort of uncertainties.
Collecting and analyzing data from different case studies can be a valuable
exercise in developing a rational approach and methodology to understand the
role of chances and probabilities in real life experiences. Most importantly,
greater familiarity and involvement with scientific concepts, methodologies and
measurement processes can help in weeding out dubious and questionable
propositions. Errors and uncertainties in data can teach us the importance of
statistical reasoning to handle claims and counter claims based on numbers and
prophecies. A valuable exposure to conduct control experiments is necessary to
clearly recognize the significance of variables that can alter the outcome of
an experiment in many possible ways.
Modern
science and democracy have common origins. Making realistic and informed
choices is the essence of democratic principles. Just as it is imperative to
combat the menace of various forms of superstitions, pseudoscience and
irrational practices in the society, it is equally important to recognize and
resist the sophistic ploys and sly practice used by the entertainment industry,
marketers and mass media that reduce people to helpless and passive consumers.
The struggle for scientific temper and rationality has to overcome many such
obstacles. In doing so, let me recall the inspiring words of George Orwell, “In
a time of universal deceit, telling the truth is a revolutionary act.“
References
- Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time, by Michael Shermer, Holt Paperbacks publication (2001)
- The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark by Carl Sagan, Ballantine Books (1997).
- Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion by Anthony Pratkanis and Elliot Aronson, W. H. Freeman (2001)
- Brave New World Revisited by Alduous Huxley, retrieved from www.idph.net.
- How We Know What Isn’t So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life by Thomas D. Gilovich, Free Press (1993).
- Propaganda And Psychological Warfare by Terence H. Qualter, Literary Licensing (2011).
- M. Owens and I. W. McGowan, Madness and the Moon: The Lunar Cycle and Psychopathology, German Journal of Psychiatry. Vol. 9(1), 2006, pp. 123-127.
- P. Jhingan and B. Lusignan, retrieved, Propaganda and the Information Revolution: The Effect of Communications Technology on War Rhetoric in India and Pakistan. retrieved from http://www.stanford.edu/
- http://www.skeptic.com/wishfulthinking.html
